Representation of Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara Holding a Skull Stick: Symbolism in Buddhist Art
Abstract
This study investigates the depiction and symbolism of the skull staff held by Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara in Korean Buddhist art during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). The research utilizes a descriptive-analytical approach, involving a comprehensive search for relevant sources through Google and the Research Information Sharing Service of Korea (RISS). Buddhist texts were also sought through the “Archives of Buddhist Culture.” The study reveals that in paintings and sculptures of the 42-armed Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara, one hand holds a skull-shaped staff. This symbolism is also evident in the royal version of the “Five Great Dhārāṇis Collection” published in 1458. The skull staff is aligned with one of the verses from the “42-Hand Mantras,” aimed at communicating with and controlling spirits. This research fills a scholarly gap by providing a detailed analysis of the skull motif in Korean Buddhist art, enhancing the understanding of Avalokiteśvara's representations and the cultural interplay between art, religion, and society during the Joseon Dynasty.
References
Chandra, L. (1988). The thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara. Abhinav Publications.
Gao, F., Zhou, X., Zhou, H., Li, M., Tong, H., & Liu, S. (2016). Characterization and analysis of sandstone substrate, mortar layers, gold foils, and paintings of the Avalokitesvara Statues in Dazu County (China). Journal of Cultural Heritage, 21, 881 – 888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.03.009
Giebel, R. W. (2006). Two esoteric sutras (BDK English Tripitaka). California: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
Gwak, H. I., & Kwon, M. H. (2019). A study on conservation and manufacturing techniques of a seated Avalokiteshvara with a thousand hands of Goryeo Dynasty. Journal of Conservation Science. e-jcs.org.
Hamada, T. (2021). Images of Thousand-armed and Thousand-eyed Avalokiteśvara with Cintāmaṇicakra and Amoghapāśa as attendants: References to the chanting of the ‘Dabeixin Dhāraṇī’ 大悲心陀羅尼. Studies in Chinese Religions, 7(2–3), 159 – 172. https://doi.org/10.1080/23729988.2021.1941617
Jung, S. G., Hwang, K., & Hwang, Y. J. (2024). Hand of the 42-armed Avalokiteśvara Holding A Skull Rod. Journal of Craniofacial Surgery.
Kim, J. H. (2012). A study on Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara paintings of Korea. The Korean Society of Pure Land Buddhism, 17, 149-196. Korean with English Abstract.
Kim, K. M. (2018). A study of the iconography and religious personality on Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara paintings of late Joseon dynasty. Bulgyohakbo, 83, 215–243. https://doi.org/10.18587/bh.2018.06.83.215.
Kim, S.-E. T. (2018). Korean Buddhist Adoption of Shamanic Religious Ethos. International Journal of Buddhist Thought and Culture, 28(1), 59–85. https://doi.org/10.16893/IJBTC.2018.06.28.1.59
Kim, S. A. (2016). The royal version of the Otaechinonchip and the formation of the faith of Avalokiteśvara. Literature and Religion, 21(1), 87–107. https://doi.org/10.14376/lar.2016.21.1.87
Kozicz, G. (2020). Triloknath revisited. Recent results from field research; [Nouveau regard sur triloknath. Nouveaux résultats depuis le terrain]. Etudes Mongoles et Siberiennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibetaines, 2020(51), 1 – 29. https://doi.org/10.4000/emscat.4286
Lee, H. J. (2021). Time Difference in the Social Transformation of China and Korea: A Case Study of Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara Paintings of the Song and Yuan Dynasties and the Koryŏ Dynasty. Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies, 21(2), 127–160. https://doi.org/10.1215/15982661-9326189
Lee, S. Y., & Lee, Y. J. (2021). Characteristics and Material Analysis on the Drafts of Buddhist Paintings in the Late 19th and the Early 20th Century. Journal of Korea TAPPI.
Minji, K. (2020). Skanda-Karttikeya in Avalokitesvara Triad in Late Joseon. Korean Journal of Art History, 306, 99 – 135. https://doi.org/10.31065/ahak.306.306.202006.004
Moon, S. L., & Kim, Y. M. (2021). The emergence and development of the 42-hand mantras of Avalokiteśvara and the five great mantras. Journal of Buddhist Art, 31, 191–218. https://doi.org/10.36620/BMS.2021.31.7.
Musillo, M. (2022). Avalokiteśvara is mutating again: Chinese and Japanese encounters with the Virgin Mary. In Iconotropy and Cult Images from the Ancient to Modern World. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003186502-10
Park, J. Y. (2010). Buddhism and Modernity in Korea. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Polosmak, N. V, Shah, M. A., & Zotkina, L. V. (2023). Cult Complex in Zanskar: Analysis, Interpretation; [Культовый комплекс в Занскаре: анализ, интерпретация]. Vestnik Novosibirskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, Seriya: Istoriya, Filologiya, 22(7), 80 – 90. https://doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2023-22-7-80-90
Sang-Leun, M. (2022). Changes in the Iconography of the Attributes in the Thousand-handed Avalokiteśvara Paintings According to Scriptural Bases : Focusing on the Iconographies from the Tang to the Ming Dynasty. Korean Journal of Art History, 315, 245 – 276. https://doi.org/10.31065/kjah.315.202209.008
Stutterheim, W. F. (1989). Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.
Tomotari, M. (2017). A study of the buddhist stone reliefs of Mt. Hiko and the influence of shugendo in the Kyushu Region. Religion and the Arts.
Wang, C.-L. (2018). True identity: Reconsidering a fourteenth-century buddhist painting of the Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara in the Rijksmuseum. Rijksmuseum Bulletin, 66(2), 101 – 119. Retrieved from https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85049854173&partnerID=40&md5=4578c04a5a9059d3e0cac2c47a940b3b
Webb, E. (2014). In search of the triune god: The Christian paths of east and west. In In Search of the Triune God: The Christian Paths of East and West. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. Retrieved from https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84946841267&partnerID=40&md5=4dcf368f932a15ae40cc3f9e4a94ffc5
Yang, H. R., Lee, C. H., & Yi, J. (2021). Analysis of pigments and damages for the 19th century White-robed Water-moon Avalokitesvara Painting in Gongju Magoksa Temple, Republic of Korea. Heritage Science, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-021-00600-6
Copyright (c) 2024 Kun Hwang
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
